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</span> </p> <p><span class="s1"><span class="Apple-tab-span"> </span>1.<span class="Apple-tab-span"> </span>What has given rise to the need for bioethics in the development and testing of new products/drugs/practice protocols? What segments of the population are more vulnerable than others to ethical violations? What protections are in place to serve as safeguards? What changes in policy – either government or corporate or both – legislation, and/or public education are still needed to protect the rights of individuals?</span></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">Several issues related to controversies surrounding abortion, stem cell research, euthanasia and unethical drug trials have arisen in recent years, pitting interest groups such as religious institutions and research bodies against each other. Clearly, bioethics is a critical issue that links these disparate controversies, as these issues are all bioethical problems that affect certain population segments, and require adequate protections to ensure that these segments are not harmed. This essay will discuss the need for bioethics in the development and testing of new products, drugs and practice protocols in the light of <em>greater competition, public accountability, technological advances, experimentation and fiduciary duties.</em> This essay will then discuss the segments of the population that are more vulnerable than others to ethical violations, which include <em>minorities, lower income and lower-educated segments, rare disease sufferers and individuals in developing countries.</em> This essay will also cover the protections that are in place to serve as safeguards, in terms of <em>regulation, democratic deliberation, public-private partnerships, non-governmental organisation campaigns and media exposes. </em>Finally, this essay will discuss how further changes in legislation, public education and policy ( in terms of corporate and government policy) are necessary to improve the state of bioethics.<span class="Apple-converted-space"></span></span></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1"><strong>Reasons for the need for bioethics in the development and testing of new products, drugs and practice protocols</strong></span></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">Bioethics is important because it forms the ethical basis for several medical and healthcare treatments, and outlines the principles for which new treatments should be evaluated and administered, bearing in mind their ethical implications and potential benefits or harms to their recipients. There are several reasons for the need for bioethics in the development and testing of new products, drugs and practice protocols. These are linked to <em>greater competition in the healthcare and biopharmaceutical sector, calls for greater public accountability in medical products, technological advances and fiduciary duties.</em></span></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">Foremost, greater competition in the healthcare and biopharmaceutical sector has led to several companies cutting corners in compliance, testing, research and development. In an increasingly crowded healthcare and biopharmaceutical market, several companies have been unable to devote sufficient talent, resources and funding to properly research, pilot and validate their products before entering the drug trial phase.(Carr, 2003) As a result of pressure from competitors to roll out blockbuster drugs, and pressure from investors and shareholders to deliver predictable and steady profit margins, pharmaceutical companies are increasingly relying on unethical procedures to get their drugs on the market. These include the use of unreliable prototype drugs in drug trials.<span class="Apple-converted-space"></span></span></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">Another important issue has been the use of counterfeit ingredients as a result of greater competitive pressure in the healthcare and biopharmaceutical sector. For example, in 2007, people from Panama were poisoned by cough XXXXX made XXXX diethylene XXXXXX, a XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXX XX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX fluid XXX XXXX-XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX.(Bogdanich XXX Hooker, 2007) Similar XXXXX syrup XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXX found in Nigeria in 2009.(</span></p><p><span XXXXX="XX">XXXXXXXX, X. E., & XXXXX, X. X. (2009). Lead XXX XXXXXXX levels XX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXX in Nigeria: a XXXXXX XXXXXX concern?. Science of XXX total environment, 407(XX), 5993-XXXX.</span></p><p><span class="XX">, XXXX) X XXXXX XXXX XX XXX issue XXX XXXXXXX by XXXXXXXX regulation and XXXXXXXXXXXXX on XXX part XX XXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX producers, XXXXX XXXX XXXXX through XXXXX attempts to XXXXXXXXXX costs in XXX XXXX XX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX.<span class="XXXXX-XXXXXXXXX-XXXXX">(Miller, XXXX)</span></span></p> <p><span class="XX"></span> </p> <p><span class="XX">Next, calls for greater public XXXXXXXXXXXXXX in XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXX XXX XX XXXXXXX biomedical issues. (Moore, 2010) XXX dimension of XXXX XXXXX relates to XXX XXXX to ensure that XXXXXXX standards are XXX, XXX that these XXXXXXXX XX XXX inherently harm XXXXXXXXX. XXX XXXXXXX, in 1938, XXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX was mixed XXXX XXXXXXXXXX glycol and marketed XX an elixir XXXX, which led to XXXX a XXXXXXX deaths.( XX a separate, more XXXXXX case, XXX XXX found XXXX samples XX the XXXX XXXXXXX, which was manufactured in XXXXX, XXX contaminated by chondroitin sulfate and XXXXXX to almost XX deaths XXX XXX injuries.(Bogdanich XXX Hooker, 2007) These XXXXXX of XXXXXXX XXXXXX are indeed problematic, and warrant greater bioethical XXXXXXXXXXX.<span XXXXX="Apple-XXXXXXXXX-space"></span></span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"></span> </p> <p><span class="XX">However, XXXXXXX dimension of the XXXX for greater XXXXXX accountability XXXXXXXX XXXXXX oversight XXXX procedures such XX XXXXX XXXXXXXXX, euthanasia, XXXX cell research and XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX. XXX XXXXX advancement XX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX has led XXXXXXX segments of the XXXXXXXX public to XXXX for XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX over XXX use XXX XXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX, and to make XXX XXX XX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX accountable. For XXXXXXX, XXX XXXXX donation XXXXXX XXX rapidly XXXXXXXX, as XXXXXXX XXXX found new ways XX transplanting XXX XXXXXXXXXXX previously non-XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX.(Danovitch et XX, 2013) This has XXX XX the proliferation of a XXXXX market XXX XXXXX XXXXX, XXXXXXXXX through illicit means XXXX XX criminal XXXXXXXXXX XXX the dark XXX.(XXXXX, XXXX) In XXX XXXXXX South, many XXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXX, or XXXXXXXXXXX in XXXXXXX, have XXXXXXXXX been enticed XX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX to XXXXXXXXX their organs XXX monetary compensation, such XXXX XXXXX XXXXXX XXX be transplanted to patients in higher income XXXXXXXX in the global North. (Danovitch XX XX, XXXX) This XXXXXXXXXXX has sparked a XXXXXXXX XXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXX, and XX XXXXXXX it is XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXX a person to accept an organ XXXX has XXXX coercively XXXXXXXX XXXX a XXXXX, or whether XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX to decline XXXXXXXXXX an XXXXXXXXX on an XXXXX that XXX been illicitly XXXXXXXX.<span class="XXXXX-XXXXXXXXX-XXXXX"></span></span></p> <p><span XXXXX="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">In another example, XXXXX progress in XXXX cell research has led to calls for greater XXXXXX accountability by XXXXXXXXX XXXXXX such as XXXXXXXX XXX evangelical Christians, who XXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX to be XXXX to ‘XXXXXXX XXX’ and a deep affront XX XXXXX religious beliefs. XX a XXXXXX, they XXXX XXXXXX for greater XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXXXXXXXX of XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXX, in the XXXX XX genetically XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX (GMOs), several consumers XXXX called for XXXXXXX public XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX the use of GMOs in XXX XXXXXX food supply XXXXX, XXX a closer XXXXXXXXXXX of XXX impact of using XXXXX organisms on the XXXXXXXXX, the XXXXXXXXXXX and XXXXX health. (Idris et XX, XXXX)</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"></span> </p> <p><span class="XX">X XXX factor driving XXX growing need for bioethics in XXX development XXX testing XX new XXXXXXXX, drugs and practice XXXXXXXXX has also been XXX technological XXXXXXXX in XXXXXXX products, drugs XXX XXXXXXXXXX delivery in XXXXXX XXXXX. Several XXXXXXX ago, XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX XX XXXX cell therapy, vaccination and organ XXXXXXXXXXX would have XXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXX, XXXXXXXX in the technological XXXX and feasibility of XXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXX also XXX XX the XXXXXXXX XX a host XX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX. For example, XXX safety and XXXXXXX XXXX XX several of XXXXX treatments XX still uncertain. XXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXX in 1998 XXXXXXXX a paper XXXXXXXXX by XXX British XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX Wakefield, XXX claimed that the XXX vaccine’s administration XXX XXXXXX XX XXX XXXXX XX developmental disorders in XXXXXXXX. This XXX XX a XXXXXX XXXXXX scandal, as XXXXXXXXXX practitioners XXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX companies XXXXXXX the XXXXXXXX of vaccinating children from XXXXXXX, rubella and mumps, against the XXXXXXXXXXX XX introducing the development XX autism XXX XXXX in XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXX. (Flaherty, 2011) The XXXXXXX continued XXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXX revealed XX an XXXXXXXXXXX journalistic investigation to XXXX XXXXXXXXXX evidence, which XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX debate about XXX XXXXXX XX proof that medical XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX to XXXXXX XXXX their work is XXX XXXXXXX or biased by poor evidence or conflicts of XXXXXXXX. (XXXXXXXX, 2011) In XXX same XXXXX, XXX XXXXX growth XX XXX XXXXX transplant market XXX stem cell XXXXXXX XXXXXX has also led XX public XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXX XXX safety XXX sustainability XX these therapies.<span class="XXXXX-converted-XXXXX"></span></span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">XXXXXXX major XXXXX that XXX led XX severe bioethics XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXX XXX issue of XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXX healthcare XXXXXXXXXXXXX will have XX research and develop XXXXX therapies XXX XXXX products in XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX clinical XXXXXXX, which XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXX. However, these XXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXX deliver XXX XXXXXXXX treatment XX their patients, or XXXXX XXXXX, XXX XXX XX harming the XXXXXXXX involved in XXXX XXXXXXXX trials. In the XXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XX date, XXX leading pharmaceutical XXXXXXX at XXX time, Pfizer, administered an XXXXXXXXXXXX oral XXXXXXXXXX, Trovan, to children in XXX Kano XXXXX, XXXXXXX in XXXX who were suffering XXXX meningitis, in XXXXX XX the XXXXXXXX ceftriaxone treatment. (Nwabueze, XXXX) XXXXX both XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX featured XXXXXXXX XXX XXXX, XXXXXX XXX XXXXX XXXXXXX of XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXX illegitimately XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX on the XXXXXXXX in the XXXX group without XXXXXXX. (Jegede, 2009) Pfizer was XXXX accused of causing XXXXX damage, developmental XXXXXXXXX XXX paralysis in XXXXXXXX in the XXXXXXXXX group, where XXX experimental XXXXXX may have XXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXX. (XXXXXXXX, 2003) The XXXX was widely seen XX a XXXXX violation of XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XX scientific experimentation, XXX XXXXXX had XX pay XXXXXXXXXXXX XX XXX victims and continues to face XXXXXXXX prosecution XX the Nigerian authorities. (XXXXXX, 2009) Similar controversies XXXX XXXXXXX over XXXXXXXXXXX involving XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX, XXXXXXXX and LSD treatments, which have XXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXXX consequences XXX the XXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX such treatments.<span class="Apple-XXXXXXXXX-space"></span></span></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="XX">Finally, healthcare practitioners have a fiduciary XXXX to care XXX their XXXXXXXX and do no harm. However, XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX, such as abortion XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX, the XXXXXXXXXXX of mechanical ventilation, and treatments involving XXXXXXXX consent, may lead to XXXXXXXXX problems as XXXX may XXXXX harm. XX XXX case XX abortion, XXX XXXXXXX of XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX that the XXXXXX XX a XXXXX life XX a XXXXXXXXX of a healthcare XXXXXXXXXXXX’s fiduciary XXXX to XX XX XXXX. Likewise, euthanasia XXX XXXXXXXX suicide, even for a XXXXXXX who XX in great XXXX or XXX has XXXXXXXXXXX and consciously consented to such ‘XXXXXXXXXX’, may be a violation XX a physician’s XXXX XX do XX harm XX XXXXX XXXXXXXX, as XXX XXXXXX injection XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX such XXXXXXXXXX inevitably kills the XXXXXXX at hand. XXXXXXXX, the termination of XXXXXXXXXX ventilation and XXXX XXXXXXX, while it XXXX XXX XXXX directly, leads to the ending of a XXXX, XXXXX critics XXXX XXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XX manslaughter.(XXXXXX et al, 1997) This has XXX to a major bioethics debate XXXX XXX responsibilities XXX scope of a XXXXXXXXX’s responsibility, and whether a XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX is XXXXXXX to safeguard the XXXX XX XXXXX patients over their expressed XXXXXX on XXX stewardship XX their XXXX.<span class="Apple-XXXXXXXXX-space"></span></span></p> <p><span class="XX"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="s1"><strong>XXXXXXXX of the XXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXX XXXX XXXXXXXXXX than others XX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX</XXXXXX></span></p> <p><span XXXXX="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">There XXX specific XXXXXXXX XX the XXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXX in the XXXXX as the victims of XXXXX bioethics scandals. The segments XX XXX XXXXXXXXXX that XXX more XXXXXXXXXX XXXX others XX ethical violations XXXXXXX minorities, XXXXX income XXX lower-educated segments, XXXX XXXXXXX sufferers and individuals in XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXXX, minorities in XXXXXXX countries, XXXX XXXXXXXXX and developing, are XXXX vulnerable XX ethical XXXXXXXXXX XX they are typically XXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXX their civil XXXXXX.(XXXXX, 2010) Linguistic, XXXXXXXX XXX educational XXXXXXXX may XXXXX XXX them in XXXXX integration into society, which may XXXXX them to XX XXXXXXX XX their XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXX it XXXXX XX consenting XX experimental medical XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXX, stem cell therapy or GMO XXXXXXXX. As a result XX their XXXX XX awareness XXXX XXX potential harms and ethical XXXXXXXXXXXX of XXXXX products, XXXXXXXXXX are XXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX XX these XXXXXXXXXX.</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">Secondly, XXXXX XXXXXX XXX lower XXXXXXXX segments are also more XXXXXXXXXX to XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX. These XXXXXXXX are typically XXXX XXXXXXXX about the implications and risks XX recent XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX XX XXXXXXXXXXX modified XXXXXXXXX, stem cell therapy XXX XXXX XXXXXX. They are also XXXXX XXXXXX to XXX XXX ‘XXXX standard’ XXXXXXXXXX, XXX may opt for XXXX experimental XXXXXXXXXXXX XXX to a lack XX XXXXXXXXX ability to pay XXX regular XXXXXXXXXX. XX a XXXXXX, these XXXXX XXXXXX XXX lower educated segments XX a population may XXXX XXXX XX experimental XXXXXXXXXX trials or novel XXXXXXXX that XXX pose harms or XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX, XXXXX XXXX XXX not XX XXXXX of.</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"></span> </p> <p><span class="XX" <thirdly,="" rare="" and="" XXXXXXXXX="" XXXXXXX="" sufferers="" XXX="" XXXXX="" the="" target="" of="" experimental="" XXXX="" XXXXXX="" XXXX="" XXXXXXXXXXXXXX="" XXXXXXXXX="" XXXX="" XXXXXXXXXXXX,="" XXXX="" in="" face="" potential="" ethical="" violations.="" XXXXXXXXXXX="" XXXXXXXXX="" XXXX="" forms="" XXXXXX,="" XXXXXXXX="" XXXXXXXX,="" creutzfeldt–jakob="" XXXXXXX,="" XXX-aids,="" XXXXX="" hepatitis="" b="" XXX="" consider="" their="" condition="" hopeless,="" XX="" XXXXX="" exist="" no="" known="" XXXXX=""></span></p> <p>XXXXXXX, XXXX and XXXXXXXXX disease XXXXXXXXX are often XXX target XX XXXXXXXXXXXX drug trials that pharmaceutical XXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX, even in the XXXX XX potential ethical XXXXXXXXXX. (XXXXX, XXXX) XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXX XXXXX XX XXXXXX, XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX, Creutzfeldt–Jakob XXXXXXX, HIV-AIDS, Ebola XXX Hepatitis B may consider their XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX, as there XXXXX no XXXXX cures XXX these XXXXXXXXXX. In XXX face XX a lack of treatment options and a lack XX time remaining XX treat the XXXXXXX XXXXXX they XXXXXXX to it, XXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXX opt to XX XXXXXXX by XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX treatments which are still in the experimental XXXXX, XXX may XXXXXX XXXX more XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XX a result.<br></p> <p><span XXXXX="s1">XXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXXX in developing XXXXXXXXX often XXXX XXXXX access to XXXXXXXXXX, sanitation XXX medication. These individuals may XXXXXXXXX be enticed by clinical XXXXXX XXXX offer XXXXXXXXXXXX therapies XX XXX or XX cost, or therapies XXXX XXX XXXX provide XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX for XXXXXXXXXXX who XXXXXX their administration. Several XXXXXXXXXX scandals XXXX XXXX been linked to XXXXXXXXXX countries, such as XXXXX markets in India, where XXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX financial or violent XXXXX to XXXXXX XXXXX organs for sale. The stigma XXXXXXXXXXX diseases such as XXX-AIDS and mental health XX XXXX XXXX severe in developing XXXXXXXXX with XXXXX awareness of such diseases, XXXXX XXX XXXX XXXX individuals XXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXXXX and ethically problematic forms XX XXXXXXXXX.<span XXXXX="XXXXX-XXXXXXXXX-space">(XXXXXXXXX et XX, XXXX)</span></span></p> <p><span class="XX"></span> </p> <p><span class="XX"><strong>XXXXXXXXXXX that are in XXXXX to serve as safeguards against ethical violations<span class="XXXXX-converted-XXXXX"></span></strong></span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"></span> </p> <p><span class="XX">XX XXXXXXXX XX XXX above XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX, and to protect XXX segments of the population that XXX XXXX XXXXXXXXXX than others to ethical XXXXXXXXXX, protections XXXX XXXX put in XXXXX to XXXXX as XXXXXXXXXX, in XXXXX XX regulation, XXXXXXXXXX deliberation, XXXXXX-private XXXXXXXXXXXX, non-governmental XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXX exposes.</span></p> <p><span class="XX"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="XX">XXXXXXXX, regulatory XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX XX the U.S. XXXX XXX XXXX Administration (FDA), backed by legislation XXXX as XXX X.S. Federal Food, Drug XXX Cosmetic Act (FDCA) XX 1938, XXXXX XXX U.S. XXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXX, XXXXXX XXX monitor XXX XXXXXXX of products XXXXXXXXXXXX by biomedical XXX XXXXXXXXXX authorities. (Hoffmaster, XXXX) XXXX regulation XXXXXXX that imported products XXX compliant XXXX XXX regulations, XXX XXXX counterfeit ingredients XXX not XXXX which XXX be harmful to consumers.</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="s1">XXXXXXXX, several XXXXXXXXX, such XX the United States, feature XXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX allow citizens a voice to determine the legality XX new medical XXXXXXXXXXXX. XXX XXXXXXX, the X.S. Senate XXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XX Ethics XXX the U.S. XXXXX Committee XX Ethics XXXXXXXXX deliberate XX the ethical XXXXXX XX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX such XX abortion law, XXXXXXXXXX law, assisted XXXXXXX XXX and GMO status.<span class="XXXXX-converted-XXXXX">(XXXXXXXXXX, 2009)</span>XXXX XXXXXXXXX call upon expert XXXXXXXXX on both XXXXX of the XXXXX to testify XX the XXXXXXX XXXXXX at hand, and XXX representatives XX such democratic XXXXXXX are XXXXXXXXXX held accountable XX their electorate and XXXXXXXXXXXX. Furthermore, several XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX institutions XXXX XXXX their own internal bioethics committees, XXXXX ensure that their faculty and XXXXXXXX staff XXX XXXXXXXXX research XXXX is in XXXX XXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX, in a manner XXXX XX XXXXXXXX accountable.<span class="XXXXX-XXXXXXXXX-XXXXX"></span></span></p> <p><span class="XX"></span> </p> <p><span class="XX">Thirdly, public private XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX allowed XXX greater scrutiny and XXXX-practice XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX players XXXX XX XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX, and XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX such XX XXXXXXXX XXXXXX hospitals XXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX. XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX private XXXXXXX to XX certified XXX audited for their processes, to ensure XXXX they XXX in XXXX with XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXX, XXX that they have not transgressed XXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX in their research.(XXXXXXXXXX, XXXX)XXXXXXXXX bioethicists, XXXXX from public institutions XXX XXXXXXXX research centers, XXXXX partner with private XXXXXXXXX as XXXX in order XX ensure XXXX these companies are in XXXX with latest ethical standards for XXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXX. XXXXX XXXXXXX XXX XXXXX able to XXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX XX a variety of multidisciplinary approaches involving XXXXXXXX, XXXXXXX, XXXXXX and philosophy.</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="s1"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="XX">Finally, XXX-governmental XXXXXXXXXXXXX and XXXXX exposes XXXX a powerful mechanism to protect and safeguard XXXXXXXXX XXX the general XXXXXX against XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX in XXX area of XXXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX. (XXXXXXXXXX, 2009) News agencies such XX XXXXXXX, the XXX XXXX XXXXX and XXX XXX are XXXXX able XX expose, in XXXXXXXXXXX with watchdogs XXXX XX the Nuffield Council on XXXXXXXXX XXX Bioethics XXXXXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXX in XXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXXXX compliance among stakeholders such as XXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXX medical XXXXXXXXX. These XXXX an XXXXXXXXX check XXX balance to XXXXXX that XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXX XXXX responsible XXX the ethical implications XX their actions.</span></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"><XXXXXX>XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX in legislation, public XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXX to XXXXXXX the XXXXX of bioethics</strong></span></p> <p><span class="XX"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="XX">Much XXX XX done XX XXXXXX XXX XXXX of XXXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXX in order XX improve XXX current state XX XXXXXXXXX. XXXXXXXX, governments XXXXXX introduce stronger XXXXXXXXXX XX ensure XXXX XXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXX XXX XXX administration of any medical XXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXX experimental or that XXXX unproven XXXXXX consequences. Secondly, governments XXXXXX XXXX with schools, universities and XXXXXXXXXX to XXXXXXXXX greater public education campaigns XXXX contentious XXXXXXXXX XXXXXX such XX abortions, euthanasia, XXXXXXXX suicide, genetically modified XXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXXXX and XXXX cell XXXXXXXXX. XX equipping the public with XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX that XX kept up to date with XXX XXXXXX scientific XXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXXX can therefore XXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXX XX make informed decisions XX bioethics issues, and XX vote in accordance XXXX informed XXXXXXXX during referenda about bioethics. Finally, XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX regulation concerning drug trials and XXX administration XX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX treatments XXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX, to align XXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX.<span XXXXX="XXXXX-XXXXXXXXX-space"></span></span></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"><XXXXXX>XXXXXXXXXX</XXXXXX></span></p> <p><span XXXXX="s1"></span> </p> <p><span class="s1">Bioethics remains an understudied XXXXX XXXX tremendous ramifications XX XXXXXXX XXXXXX in XXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXXXX today. In XXXXXXXXXX the XXXX for XXXXXXXXX in XXX development and testing XX new products, XXXXX XXX practice XXXXXXXXX in the light XX greater competition, public accountability, technological advances, experimentation and fiduciary XXXXXX, the XXXXXXXX of XXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXX XXXX XXXXXXXXXX than others to ethical violations, which include XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXX income and lower-educated XXXXXXXX, rare disease XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXXXXX in XXXXXXXXXX countries, XXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXX in XXXXX XX XXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX, in terms of XXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXX-XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX, XXX-XXXXXXXXXXXX organisation XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXX exposes, XXX the<span XXXXX="XXXXX-XXXXXXXXX-space"> </span>XXXX for further XXXXXXX in XXXXXXXXXXX, XXXXXX XXXXXXXXX and XXXXXX XX XXXXXXXXXX the XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX, this essay XXX proven XXX need XXX greater XXXXXXXXX research and XXXXXXXXX.</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX"></span> </p> <p><XX></p> <p><span class="s1"></span> </p> <p><span XXXXX="XX">References</span></p><p>Bogdanich, X., & Hooker, X. (XXXX). From China to XXXXXX, a trail of poisoned XXXXXXXX. New York XXXXX, 6.</p> <p><span class="XX"></span></p> <p>Carr, D. X. (XXXX). Pfizer's Epidemic: X Need for International Regulation XX Human Experimentation in XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX. Case W. XXX. X. XXX'l X., XX, 15.</p><p><span XXXXX="s1">Danovitch, X. M., XXXXXXX, X., XXXXXX, A. X., Levin, X., XXXXX-Filho, M., Al XXXXXXX, X., ... & Jha, X. (2013). XXXXX trafficking XXX transplant tourism: XXX XXXX of global XXXXXXXXXXXX ethical standards&XXXXX;the XXXX XXXXXXXXXXX of XXXXXXXX.<i>Transplantation</i>,<i>XX</i>(11), 1306-1312.</span></p> <p>Dzur, A. X., & Levin, X. L. (2004). The" XXXXXX's XXXXXXXXXX:" XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX commissions XX public XXXXXX. Kennedy Institute of XXXXXX Journal, XX(X), XXX-XXX.</p><p><span XXXXX="s1">XXXXXXXX, X. K. (2011). XXX XXXXXXX-autism XXXXXXXXXX: a XXXXXX XXXXXX crisis XXXXXX by XXXXXXXXX medical practices XXX fraudulent science. Annals XX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX, XX(10), 1302-XXXX.</span></p> <p>XXXXX, X. (XXXX). European XXXXXX in XXXXXXXXX: Why, what, and how to be used. Theoretical XXXXXXXX XXX bioethics, XX(3), 199-XXX.</p> <p><span class="s1"></span></p> <p>XXXXXX, X. X. (XXXX). XXX XX must leave XXX organs to XXXXXX. The XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX of XXXXXXXXX, 6(X), W23-W28.</p><p><span XXXXX="s1">XXXXXXXXXX, X. (XXXX).<i>XXXXXXXXX in social context</i>. XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX Press.</span></p><p><span XXXXX="s1">Idris, S. X., XXXXX, L. X., & XXXXXXXXXX, X. (XXXX). Biosafety XXX 2007: XXXX XX Really XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX Relating To GMOS. XXXXXXX XX agricultural XXX environmental ethics, XX(4), XXX-XXX.</span></p><p><span class="s1">XXXXX, X. H. (2009). Organ trafficking: global solutions XXX a global XXXXXXX. XXXXXXXX Journal of XXXXXX XXXXXXXX, XX(X), XXXX-1157.</span></p><p><span XXXXX="s1">Jegede, A. S. (XXXX). Understanding informed consent for XXXXXXXXXXXXX in international health XXXXXXXX. Developing XXXXX bioethics, 9(X), 81-87.</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX">Koch, X. (2012). Thieves XX virtue: XXXX bioethics stole XXXXXXXX. XXX Press.</span></p><p><span class="XX">Lavery, X. V., Dickens, B. M., XXXXX, J. X., & Singer, P. A. (XXXX). XXXXXXXXX for clinicians: 11. XXXXXXXXXX and XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX.<i>XXXX</i>,<i>156</i>(10), 1405-XXXX.</span></p><p><span class="XX">Miller, J. X. (XXXX). XXXX XXX XXXXXX XX XXXX pharma: aligning XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXX XXXX XXX trustworthy XXXXXXXXX through XXXXXXXXXXXXX, certification, XXX XXXXXX. XXX XXXXXXX XX XXX, XXXXXXXX & XXXXXX, XX(X), 601-XXX.</span><XX></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX">XXXXX, X. (XXXX). Public XXXXXXXXX and public XXXXXXXXXX: the politics of “proper talk”. XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXX XX Science, XX(2), XXX-211.</span></p><p><span class="XX">XXXXXXXX, R. N. (2003). XXXXXXX XXXXXX of XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX subjects in Nigeria: legal and XXXXXX XXXXXX. XXX. XXX'l & Comp. L. XXX., 14, XX.</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="s1">X'neill, O. (2002). XXXXXXXX XXX trust in bioethics. XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX Press.</span></p><p><span XXXXX="s1">Orisakwe, X. E., & Nduka, X. K. (XXXX). Lead XXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XX commonly XXXXXXXXXXXX pediatric XXXXXX in XXXXXXX: a XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX?. XXXXXXX of XXX total environment, 407(23), XXXX-5996.</span></p> <p><span XXXXX="XX">Stephens, X. (2007). Pfizer faces criminal XXXXXXX in Nigeria. XXXXXXXXXX Post, XX, A10.</span></p> <p><span class="XX">XXXXXXXXX, X. K., & XXXXX, D. (XXXX). XXXXXXXXX, medicine and XXXXXXX–a XXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX. Current Science, XXXX-1136.</span></p>">
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